Multilevel modelling of the determinants of low birth weight in frontier, outermost and underdeveloped regions: Evidence from the Indonesian National Socioeconomic Survey (2019–2021)

Background: The prevalence of low-birthweight infants is increasing in Indonesia. A low birth weight can have a negative effect on a child's development. Understanding the factors influencing low birth weight may enable preventative actions. Aim: To analyse the determinant factors of low-birthweight infants in frontier, outermost and underdeveloped regions in Indonesia. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted using a secondary dataset from the Indonesian National Socioeconomic Survey, 2019–2021. The sample included 27,678 inhabitants aged 16–64 years. The Indonesian regions of Nusa Tenggara Timur, Nusa Tenggara Barat, Sulawesi Tengah, Sulawesi Tenggara, Gorontalo, Maluku, Maluku Utara, Papua and Papua Barat were included. A multilevel logistic regression was conducted to determine the relationship between variables. p < 0.05 was considered to indicate significance in the fixed-effects model findings. Findings: Women who lived in a rural area [OR 1.176, 95 % confidence interval (CI) 0.088–0.235] and had never used contraception (OR 1.227, 95 % CI 0.096–0.313) were more likely to have low-birthweight infants. In contrast, water resources, social assistance/welfare, maternal age and gross domestic product per capita had no significant effect on the prevalence of low-birthweight infants. Discussion and conclusion: Living in a rural area and lifetime non-use of contraception were found to be significant risk factors for low birth weight in frontier, outermost and underdeveloped regions in Indonesia. Increasing health facilities in rural areas and establishing programmes on the use of contraception may be positive strategies to reduce the prevalence of low-birthweight infants.