Sustainable valorization of oil palm empty fruit bunches for high-purity nitrocellulose: Optimization of acid ratios and life cycle assessment

The sustainable synthesis of nitrocellulose from lignocellulosic biomass faces challenges due to yield limitations and environmental concerns. This study explores nitrocellulose production from cellulose extracted from oil palm empty fruit bunches (OPEFB) and examines the effect of cellulose-to-acid ratios on its properties. Extracted cellulose reached a purity of 91.99% and served as a precursor for nitration, yielding up to 91.67% nitrocellulose at a 1:45/60 ratio. Thermal analyses indicated enhanced exothermic behavior and reactivity at higher acid volumes. This behavior is attributed not only to the degree of nitration but also to structural modifications induced under more aggressive conditions. Meanwhile, nitrogen content peaked at 12.716% and declined at excess acid. Life cycle assessment (LCA) using the ReCiPe 2016 Endpoint (H) method identified the nitration stage as the primary contributor to environmental burden, whereas upstream OPEFB processing exhibited minimal impact. Optimizing acid usage, energy consumption, and emissions with clean energy integration can mitigate environmental impacts. These results demonstrate that OPEFB is a viable feedstock for high-quality nitrocellulose, supporting sustainable valorization of agricultural waste.